Electric car

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Modern all-electric cars

Nissan Leaf

Renault Zoe

BMW i3

Tesla Model 3

Jaguar I-Pace

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An electric car, battery electric car, or all-electric car is an automobile that is propelled by one or more electric motors, using only energy stored in batteries. Compared to internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles, electric cars are quieter, have no exhaust emissions, and lower emissions overall.^[1] In the United States and the European Union, as of 2020, the total cost of ownership of recent electric vehicles is cheaper than that of equivalent ICE cars, due to lower fueling and maintenance costs.^[2][3] Charging an electric car can be done at a variety of charging stations; these charging stations can be installed in both houses and public areas.^[4]

Worldwide, 6.6 million plug-in electric cars were sold in 2021, more than doubling 2020 sales, and achieving a market share of 9% of the global new car market.^[5] All-electric cars represented 71% of plug-in car sales in 2021.^[6] As of December 2021, 16 million plug-in electric cars were on the world's roads.^[5] Many countries have established government incentives for plug-in electric vehicles, tax credits, subsidies, and other non-monetary incentives while several countries have legislated to phase-out sales of fossil fuel cars,^[7][8] to reduce air pollution and limit climate change.^[9]

The Tesla Model 3 became the world's all-time best-selling electric car in early 2020,^[10] and in June 2021 became the first electric car to pass 1 million global sales.^[11] Together with other emerging automotive technologies such as autonomous driving, connected vehicles and shared mobility, electric cars form a future mobility vision called Autonomous, Connected, Electric and Shared (ACES) Mobility.^[12]

Terminology[edit]

See also: Vehicle classification by propulsion system, Plug-in electric vehicle § Terminology, and Battery electric vehicle

The term "electric car" typically refers specifically to battery electric vehicles (BEVs) or all-electric cars, a type of electric vehicle (EV) that has an onboard rechargeable battery pack that can be plugged in and charged from the electric grid, and the electricity stored on the vehicle is the only energy source that provide propulsion for the wheels. The term generally refers to highway-capable automobiles, but there are also low-speed electric vehicles with limitations in terms of weight, power and maximum speed that are allowed to travel on public roads. The latter are classified as Neighborhood Electric Vehicles (NEVs) in the United States,^[13] and as electric motorised quadricycles in Europe.^[14]

History

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Early developments

Robert Anderson is often credited with inventing the first electric car some time between 1832 and 1839.^[15]

The following experimental electric cars appeared during the 1880s:

• In 1881, Gustave Trouvé presented an electric car at the Exposition internationale d'Électricité de Paris.^[16]
• In 1884, over 20 years before the Ford Model T, Thomas Parker built an electric car in Wolverhampton using his own specially-designed high-capacity rechargeable batteries, although the only documentation is a photograph from 1895.^[17][18][19]
• In 1888, the German Andreas Flocken designed the Flocken Elektrowagen, regarded by some as the first "real" electric car.^[20][21][22]

Electricity was among the preferred methods for automobile propulsion in the late-19th and early-20th centuries, providing a level of comfort and an ease of operation that could not be achieved by the gasoline-driven cars of the time.^[23] The electric vehicle fleet peaked at approximately 30,000 vehicles at the turn of the 20th century.^[24]

In 1897, electric cars first found commercial use as taxis in Britain and in the United States. In London, Walter Bersey's electric cabs were the first self-propelled vehicles for hire at a time when cabs were horse-drawn.^[25] In New York City, a fleet of twelve hansom cabs and one brougham, based on the design of the Electrobat II, formed part of a project funded in part by the Electric Storage Battery Company of Philadelphia.^[26] During the 20th century, the main manufacturers of electric vehicles in the United States included Anthony Electric, Baker, Columbia, Anderson, Edison, Riker, Milburn, Bailey Electric, and Detroit Electric. Their electric vehicles were quieter than gasoline-powered ones, and did not require gear changes.^[27][28]

Six electric cars held the land speed record in the 19th century.^[29] The last of them was the rocket-shaped La Jamais Contente, driven by Camille Jenatzy, which broke the 100 km/h (62 mph) speed barrier by reaching a top speed of 105.88 km/h (65.79 mph) in 1899.

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Modern electric cars

Modern electric cars[edit]

In the early 1990s the California Air Resources Board (CARB) began a push for more fuel-efficient, lower-emissions vehicles, with the ultimate goal of a move to zero-emissions vehicles such as electric vehicles.^[32][33] In response, automakers developed electric models. These early cars were eventually withdrawn from the U.S. market, because of a massive campaign by the US automakers to discredit the idea of electric cars.^[34]

California electric-auto maker Tesla Motors began development in 2004 of what would become the Tesla Roadster, first delivered to customers in 2008. The Roadster was the first highway-legal all-electric car to use lithium-ion battery cells, and the first production all-electric car to travel more than 320 km (200 miles) per charge.^[35]

Better Place, a venture-backed company based in Palo Alto, California, but steered from Israel, developed and sold battery charging and battery swapping services for electric cars. The company was publicly launched on 29 October 2007 and announced deployment of electric vehicle networks in Israel, Denmark and Hawaii in 2008 and 2009. The company planned to deploy the infrastructure on a country-by-country basis. In January 2008, Better Place announced a memorandum of understanding with Renault-Nissan to build the world's first Electric Recharge Grid Operator (ERGO) model for Israel. Under the agreement, Better Place would build the electric recharge grid and Renault-Nissan would provide the electric vehicles. Better Place filed for bankruptcy in Israel in May 2013. The company's financial difficulties were caused by mismanagement, wasteful efforts to establish toeholds and run pilots in too many countries, the high investment required to develop the charging and swapping infrastructure, and a market penetration far lower than originally predicted.^[36]

The Mitsubishi i-MiEV, launched in 2009 in Japan, was the first highway-legal series production electric car,^[37] and also the first all-electric car to sell more than 10,000 units. Several months later, the Nissan Leaf, launched in 2010, surpassed the i MiEV as the best selling all-electric car at that time.^[38]

Starting in 2008, a renaissance in electric vehicle manufacturing occurred due to advances in batteries, and the desire to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions and to improve urban air quality.^[39] During the 2010s, the electric vehicle industry in China expanded greatly with government support.^[40] The subsidies introduced by the Chinese government will however be cut by 20 to 30% and phased out completely before 2023. Several automakers marked up the prices of their electric vehicles in anticipation of the subsidy adjustment, including Tesla, Volkswagen and Guangzhou-based GAC Group, which counts Fiat, Honda, Isuzu, Mitsubishi, and Toyota as foreign partners.^[41]

In July 2019 US-based Motor Trend magazine awarded the fully-electric Tesla Model S the title "ultimate car of the year".^[42] In March 2020 the Tesla Model 3 passed the Nissan Leaf to become the world's all-time best-selling electric car, with more than 500,000 units delivered;^[10] it reached the milestone of 1 million global sales in June 2021.^[11]

In the third quarter of 2021, the Alliance for Automotive Innovation reported that sales of electric vehicles had reached six percent of all US light-duty automotive sales, the highest volume of EV sales ever recorded at 187,000 vehicles. This was an 11% sales increase, as opposed to a 1.3% increase in gasoline and diesel-powered units. The report indicated that California was the US leader in EV with nearly 40% of US purchases, followed by Florida – 6%, Texas – 5% and New York 4.4%.^[43]

Electric companies from the Middle East have been designing electric cars. Oman's Mays Motors have developed the Mays i E1 which is expected to begin production in 2023. Built from carbon fibre, it has a range of about 560 km (350 miles) and can accelerate from 0–130 km/h (0–80 mph) in about 4 secs.^[44] In Turkey, the EV company Togg is starting production of its electric vehicles. Batteries will be created in a joint venture with the Chinese company Farasis Energy.^[45]

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Electric cars remained popular until advances in internal-combustion engine (ICE)

Electric cars remained popular until advances in internal-combustion engine (ICE) cars and mass production of cheaper gasoline- and diesel-powered vehicles led to a decline. ICE cars' much quicker refueling times and cheaper production-costs made them more popular. However, a decisive moment came with the introduction in 1912 of the electric starter motor^[30] that replaced other, often laborious, methods of starting the ICE, such as hand-cranking.

• 

  Gustave Trouvé's personal electric vehicle (1881), the world's first publicly presented full-scale electric car

 
• 

  Early electric car built by Thomas Parker - photo from 1895^[31]

 
• 

  "La Jamais Contente", 1899

 
• 

  NASA's Lunar Roving Vehicles were battery-driven

 
• 

  The General Motors EV1, one of the cars introduced due to a California Air Resources Board (CARB) mandate, had a range of 260 km (160 miles) with NiMH batteries in 1999.

 
• 

  The Tesla Roadster helped inspire the modern generation of electric vehicles.

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Electric cars remained popular until advances in internal-combustion engine

Electric cars remained popular until advances in internal-combustion engine (ICE) cars and mass production of cheaper gasoline- and diesel-powered vehicles led to a decline. ICE cars' much quicker refueling times and cheaper production-costs made them more popular. However, a decisive moment came with the introduction in 1912 of the electric starter motor^[30] that replaced other, often laborious, methods of starting the ICE, such as hand-cranking.

• 

  Gustave Trouvé's personal electric vehicle (1881), the world's first publicly presented full-scale electric car

 
• 

  Early electric car built by Thomas Parker - photo from 1895^[31]

 
• 

  "La Jamais Contente", 1899

 
• 

  NASA's Lunar Roving Vehicles were battery-driven

 
• 

  The General Motors EV1, one of the cars introduced due to a California Air Resources Board (CARB) mandate, had a range of 260 km (160 miles) with NiMH batteries in 1999.

 
• 

  The Tesla Roadster helped inspire the modern generation of electric vehicles.

Modern electric cars

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Modern electric cars

Modern electric cars[edit]

In the early 1990s the California Air Resources Board (CARB) began a push for more fuel-efficient, lower-emissions vehicles, with the ultimate goal of a move to zero-emissions vehicles such as electric vehicles.^[32][33] In response, automakers developed electric models. These early cars were eventually withdrawn from the U.S. market, because of a massive campaign by the US automakers to discredit the idea of electric cars.^[34]

California electric-auto maker Tesla Motors began development in 2004 of what would become the Tesla Roadster, first delivered to customers in 2008. The Roadster was the first highway-legal all-electric car to use lithium-ion battery cells, and the first production all-electric car to travel more than 320 km (200 miles) per charge.^[35]

Better Place, a venture-backed company based in Palo Alto, California, but steered from Israel, developed and sold battery charging and battery swapping services for electric cars. The company was publicly launched on 29 October 2007 and announced deployment of electric vehicle networks in Israel, Denmark and Hawaii in 2008 and 2009. The company planned to deploy the infrastructure on a country-by-country basis. In January 2008, Better Place announced a memorandum of understanding with Renault-Nissan to build the world's first Electric Recharge Grid Operator (ERGO) model for Israel. Under the agreement, Better Place would build the electric recharge grid and Renault-Nissan would provide the electric vehicles. Better Place filed for bankruptcy in Israel in May 2013. The company's financial difficulties were caused by mismanagement, wasteful efforts to establish toeholds and run pilots in too many countries, the high investment required to develop the charging and swapping infrastructure, and a market penetration far lower than originally predicted.^[36]

The Mitsubishi i-MiEV, launched in 2009 in Japan, was the first highway-legal series production electric car,^[37] and also the first all-electric car to sell more than 10,000 units. Several months later, the Nissan Leaf, launched in 2010, surpassed the i MiEV as the best selling all-electric car at that time.^[38]

Starting in 2008, a renaissance in electric vehicle manufacturing occurred due to advances in batteries, and the desire to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions and to improve urban air quality.^[39] During the 2010s, the electric vehicle industry in China expanded greatly with government support.^[40] The subsidies introduced by the Chinese government will however be cut by 20 to 30% and phased out completely before 2023. Several automakers marked up the prices of their electric vehicles in anticipation of the subsidy adjustment, including Tesla, Volkswagen and Guangzhou-based GAC Group, which counts Fiat, Honda, Isuzu, Mitsubishi, and Toyota as foreign partners.^[41]

In July 2019 US-based Motor Trend magazine awarded the fully-electric Tesla Model S the title "ultimate car of the year".^[42] In March 2020 the Tesla Model 3 passed the Nissan Leaf to become the world's all-time best-selling electric car, with more than 500,000 units delivered;^[10] it reached the milestone of 1 million global sales in June 2021.^[11]

In the third quarter of 2021, the Alliance for Automotive Innovation reported that sales of electric vehicles had reached six percent of all US light-duty automotive sales, the highest volume of EV sales ever recorded at 187,000 vehicles. This was an 11% sales increase, as opposed to a 1.3% increase in gasoline and diesel-powered units. The report indicated that California was the US leader in EV with nearly 40% of US purchases, followed by Florida – 6%, Texas – 5% and New York 4.4%.^[43]

Electric companies from the Middle East have been designing electric cars. Oman's Mays Motors have developed the Mays i E1 which is expected to begin production in 2023. Built from carbon fibre, it has a range of about 560 km (350 miles) and can accelerate from 0–130 km/h (0–80 mph) in about 4 secs.^[44] In Turkey, the EV company Togg is starting production of its electric vehicles. Batteries will be created in a joint venture with the Chinese company Farasis Energy.^[45]

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